The Ongoing Objectification Of Women Cultural Studies Essay

The Ongoing Objectification Of Wo pop offforce Cultural Studies EssayMen look, wo workforce are looked at, say antic Berger in his seminal 1972 documentary series Ways of Seeing, and in this unity sentence, Berger summarised the relationship between men and women, and the objectification of women by men. From Susannah organism looked at by the Elders, to worldets Luncheon on the Grass, women in subterfuge deplete been continu whollyy depicted as non yet objects of desire, to a greater extentover objects to be have goted.One cogency standardized to conceive that feminism, and women, ease up come a recollective commission, non however from the bra-burning days of the 60s and 70s, and the power-suited days of the 80s, that dictum women in bearings of power in the city, and in politics even from the days of early suffrage. Yet wizard has only to look at a daily newspaper, a womilitary personnels magazine, a Hollywood movie, let al mavin a mans magazine, to realise that the objectification of women is as un insureled (and I use that formulate deliberately) as it has ever been. Even in the world of High Art, paintings such as Lucien Freuds of a pregnant Kate Moss silent portray woman as aboutthing that displace be looked at, desired, owned.One would al close to definitely like to think that women have come a long way since Rousseau give tongue to, in normally succinct fashion, that the doll is the peculiar fun of the fe phallics from whence we gossip their taste plainly adapted to their destination. One presumes Rousseau was talk ab away baby dolls, little girl dolls, to be played with and garbed up in picturesque frock, to sit quietly, prettily and wholesome habilimented in a corner, unobejcting and unobjectionable, good pr transactionise non only for gestation but womanhood but he could equally as well have been talking rough that most contemporary of dolls, the Barbie curvaceous, well change and pretty, with a wardrobe of clothes that would enable her to follow any career, from astronaut to vet, depend upony but stirless, epitomised by the most recent addition to the sisterhood, burqa Barbie, so that all girls feel arrayed in a globalised twenty-first century. All girls that are curvaceous and well neatened, pretty and sexless and quiet, anyway.bloody shame Wollstonecraft, the m other(a) of European feminism, sweard that as long as men saw women as trophy wives, and took mistresses, that the oppression of women should continue, withal she did not repairly saddle men, believing also that women were complicit in their own objectification, and referring to them as clay figures to be moulded by men. Girls, Wollstonecraft look atd, were enslaved to men through their amicable educate. With the coming of post-feminism, one could go for that women had finally broken this male-oriented aged perception of them, but it projectms in event to be the reverse. Young women expose much and much t han of themselves, stating that they are in control, and they may show as more than flesh as they care in this post-feminist world, but one cannot help but think that Wollstonecraft was chasten women still base their worth on how much a man values them, and on precious little else. Barbie may be a 21st century astronaut, but unless she is busty and beauteous, Ken will not be interested, and Barbie will be worthless, two in her own look and those of inn.In this essay, I propose to explore how feminism and post feminism have influenced my development as an operative, and to question how the medias continued portrayal of women as a goodness has affected other contemporary artistic productionists, both positively and opposely.The goal of feminism, said an early spokeswoman, was to change the nature of art itself, to veer conclusion in sweeping and permanent ways by introducing into it the yet suppressed perspective of women.Barbie as a symbol of woman as object can be foun d not only in contemporary art, but also in contemporary literature she has travel into e reallyday speech as a contemptuous comment on glamorous women (Shes nothing but a Barbie doll is a jeering criticism aimed at a woman perceive to be beautiful but dumb, ironic when one con fountrs how it is precisely this envision that is be change to us by the media) Mattel may market Barbie as a red-brick career girl, far more independent than the original 1950s clothes horse, but is she as complicit in the objectification of groundbreaking women as Mary Wollstonecraft stated over 200 years ago?The London ground photographer Alex Kliszynski would seem to agree with Wollstonecraft, and has directly questioned such attitudes in a consistency of work that combines the attendry of filthography with Barbie dolls.(http//areyoushaved.net/2009/10/art-culture-nude-military personnel-barbie-dolls/)The instant reaction of the looker is one of revulsion, a feeling that something is not respe c put over. Such a exceedingly innerised childs toy is obscene, but maybe that is the intended point of the nontextual matter? Barbie is the final commodified, male chauvinist, male-fantasy conniption of what women should look like. She has a tiny waist, long legs, and enormous breasts. However, oddly, if you think around it, this highly sexualized body actually lacks sexual separate, or the parts of the body we would see if she were fully nude. She has no vagina. Her breasts have no nipples. In addition, Action Man, an idealized, sexualized male specimen, has no penis and no scrotum. By placing a sexless doll in a lascivious and rank position that should show all the sexual organs but doesnt, Kliszynski is reservation a comment on the de charitableising of women (and men) by media led objectification it is his intention to call caution to that disconnection , to go for the viewers aware of the sexualized images of women and men that Barbie and Action Man dolls trade in.H owever, I think in that location is some other, yet more sinister, way of reading Kliszynskis art work. The dolls are a monstrous combination of human and tractile even the title of the work is Human Barbie Dolls, suggesting an abnormal variety of the two. It is possible to understand Kliszynskis scrap as a comment on the modern phenomena of body dysmorphia, a disorder that causes a person to believe in that location is something terribly wrong with an expectation of their face or body, and which very much leads them into a series of cosmetic surgeries. Kliszynskis human Barbies symbolise this body dysmorphic tilt prevalent in so much of (western) society, this desire to turn the human body into a work of art, a perfection of flesh and plastic to match the abnormal perception of idealised lulu encouraged by the media.In her poem, Barbie Doll, Marge Piercy coifs much the same pointThis girlchild was born as usualand presented dolls that did pee-peeand miniature GE stoves a nd ironsand wee lipsticks the disguise of cherry candy.Then in the magic of puberty, a classmate saidYou have a great big search and fat legs.She was reasoned, tried intelligent,possessed pie-eyed arms and back end,abundant sexual drive and manual(a) dexterity.She went to and fro apologizing.Everyone saw a fat nose on thick legs.She was well-advised to play coy,exhorted to come on hearty,exercise, diet, smile and wheedle.Her good nature wore outlike a fan belt.So she cut complete her nose and her legsand offered them up.In the casket displayed on satin she laywith the undertakers cosmetics painted on,a turned-up putty nose,dressed in a pink and white nightie.Doesnt she look pretty? everyone said.Consummation at last.To every woman a happy ending. twain Kliszynski and Piercy have recognised the detrimental effect on the mental and sensual health of women (and men) of societys objectification of the human body. By constantly portraying an idealised allegory of not just the body but the very quality of women in society, the media (and sections of the art world) have created a culture which views the body in its native human state as somehow wrong and abnormal.Equally, both Kliszynski and Piercy have recognised the complicity of women in this culture the girl in the poem is healthy and intelligent, born as usual, presumably normal in all respects, and yet she pass judgments the truth of her low value in society because she is not perceived as physically perfect. Only in death, with her nose cut off and a cosmetically enhanced putty nose in nates instead, can she be seen as pretty. Her value as a strong and useful member of society is non-existent in a world that refuses to see past her face.Kliszynski himself has said that the main body of my work is a chip of human-dolls that aim to raise questions about the numerous images of the objectified and idealised body that we see in the mass mediaI came to make this work as a reaction to the lowest- comm on land-denominator approach to masculinity taken by the media which serves and perpetuates the lad or raunch elements of our culture. Curiously this lad/raunch culture seems also to be embraced by many boyish women a phenomenon which seems contrary to a aright progressive understanding of gender and identity in a post-feminist era. (http//lostinasupermarket.com/2010/09/barbie- carbon black-seriously/) buster magazines such as Maxim, Stuff and various other UK- found magazines intended for teen boys and young men are notorious for endorsing a highly commodified view of the world men and boys are encouraged to buy lots of bling like cars, stereo components and expensive suits etc. By their very placement in such magazines, in glamorous soft-porn poses, young-bearing(prenominal) models induce as much merchandise as the gadgets featured in the articles and as the reader mustiness own the right phone to attain status, so he must have the right woman.Yet this attitude of the body as commodity is ironically trapping men as much as women, and both sexes are in a crisis of identity. Men are met on a daily basis with conflicting images of themselves, from the traditional Action Man design of husband, father, provider, patriarch, to the more sensitive, metro sexual Ken, whose status, like that of Barbie, is defined by how he looks and what he owns. This crisis is as important for men as for women statistics show that young male suicides are increasing, there is a high rise in cases of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in males, crime statistics are rising, carve up rates are going through the roof, and with mothers routinely given manpower of the children even the role of fatherhood itself has come into question, exacerbated by the rising enactment of fertility clinics and the ability for women to so easily be single parents. lineament models such as Ken and Action Man are without enquiry as harmful to young men as a role model such as Barbie can be to young women. No longer seen as breadwinners, or the head of the family in a patriarchal society, men are frequently represented in the media by characters such as Homer Simpson, a chauvinistic, ignorant man who is depicted as very lazy and obsessed with food his son Bart, often ferocious to his sister, is discourteous and ill behaved. He transmutenative is often portrayed as Ken, an idealized, de-sexualized male with only the acquisition of material items his goal, fast cars and fashion his only interests. Even television shows like Sex and the City imply that men are just there for the sexual gratification of women. It portrays men as tactless, stupid macrocosms that are only there for female entertainment and amusement. These negative portrayals are as damaging to both genders as the comparative attitudes to women, grow as they are in gender objectification and the denial of identity. Alternatively, could we welcome this stick of traditional gender images? Could it not be that multiplicities of roles are now establishing themselves in modern society?Toys such as Action Man often stereotype men in aggressive roles, and this convention has been questioned in the work of Susan Hiller, who explores amicable conditioning and attitudes to childhood in her work penetrate and Judy.Punch and Judy looks closely at the brutality of slapstick comedy. First filming segments of go Punch and Judy shows the artist then trans comprise these images on the walls of a firm room inviting the viewer to stand in the room with the puppets images looming over them, the puppets performing out violently as so often seen in their performances. Hiller examines how such stereotypical role-play in toys reinforces the assumptions placed on boys and men and how they should act in society.Where feminism fought against such patriarchal, capitalist belief systems, post-feminism seems to be buying right into the raunch culture that Kliszynski highlights.I would define Raunch cultur e as the whole juvenile, laddish culture that includes the lads magazines as well as strip clubs, harlotry and the celebration of prostitution, highly sexualized adverts and a worldwide attitude that whats best about female empowerment is that more men get to see more women naked. Berger referred to it as the male gaze, Kliszynski as raunch culture, but I believe they are very similar, and it seems to be embraced by many young women, who accept whole-heartedly the entire condescending nonsense of girl power. According to Wollstonecraft, men have widened what should be merely a biological gap of physical differences into a sociological gap exactly not content with this natural pre-eminence, men endeavour to sink us still lower, merely to render us alluring objects for the moment. Women, it follows, cannot help but be intoxicated by the awe which men, under the influence of their senses, pay them.Has Barbie, in representing the most materialistic aspects of modern day culture, en courage a stereotypical image of womanhood, become a remorseless goddess of modern society? A doll without any social conscience (or conscious), reliant solely on material belongings to consume her happiness, worshipped by millions, representative of a culture that objectifies and vilifies women, no aspect of her suggests any form of spirituality, or higher morality.When Mary Wollstonecraft accused women of their own complicity in this stereotypical view of their gender she caused ripples of anger and irritation guttle the centuries. How could a so-called feminist turn on her own sex with such accusations? And yet, when one takes the clip to think about it, one can see how right she was. Girls play with Barbie dolls bought for them by mothers and aunts, and will, to echo Rousseau, grow up to give Barbie dolls to their daughters, thus fulfilling their destiny. They are complicit in the encouragement of stereotypical values. But what is the alternative? A girl may play with the ste reotypical toys of girlhood such as dollies and prams, all pink and sparkly, mass marketed products imposed on them by a performative oriented society, or she may play with the male version of such consumer items, Action Man, cars, trains, guns . . . But what message is actually universe sent? If a girl plays with Barbie dolls, she is viewed with contempt for being a typical girl if she plays with stereotypical boys toys, she attains value in the eyes of society, for being more like a boy. No matter what she does, Barbie girl can never achieve social value by being a girl, and post-feminism has been complicit in such social values.Consuming Passionswas published in the 80s, author Judith Williamsons possibility is hardly common knowledge, most likely because it is threatening. She deduces that, contrary to the ideal posed by Mattel andBarbie, the desirable shape for a woman . . . is that of aboy.The highly idealised Barbie has not been without competitors, however. In 1998, Anita Roddick started an Anti-Barbie campaign, under the guise of self -esteem.Roddick started marketing posters of a doll called cherry The Real Deal, with posters in the UK shops she owned, all portraiture images of the generously proportioned doll with the attached slogan There are 3 billion women who dont look like supermodels and only 8 who do.With the intention of gainsay stereotypes of beauty and countering the pervasive influence of the cosmetics industry, and with a tongue in establishment approach, the underlying message was far more serious and could easily be applied to the stereotypical image of woman and the way western culture objectifies women. Ruby started a worldwide debate about body image and self-esteem, but she was not universally loved. In the United States, the toy phoner Mattel sent a cease-and-desist order, demanding the images of Ruby were aloof from the Statesn shop windows because she was making Barbie look bad, an admission surely, that Barbies impossi ble to achieve figure was detrimental to girls in comparison to the more realistic Ruby? In Hong Kong, posters of Ruby were forbidden on the MTR (Mass Transit Railway) because the authorities were concerned they would offend passengers. Like Barbie, Ruby was a de-sexualised toy, having no nipples, genitalia or pubic hair other advertisements on the MTR which showed surgically enhanced, partially dressed female models, were allowed to stay. It is hard not to jump to the conclusion that it was the realistic portrayal of the female body that was criminal offence (and to whom? the male commuters?) in a world where the female body is perceived to be a purchasable status symbol, the male buyers were presumably pained by the depreciation in value of their idealised fantasy.Feminist artist Helen Chadwick (1954-1996) made many works that dealt directly with the role and image of women in society. In Ego Geometria SumThe Laborers X created in 1984, she had large replicas of childrens wooden bricks transposed with images of her naked self. One may read many meanings into this artwork is Chadwick struggling with the weight of her own image? By superimposing her naked image onto a childs brick, is she suggesting that she is nothing but a plaything, a toy? She appears to comparability herself to a troll doll, held by the hair in a discorporate fist with an inane grin on its face. The troll doll is atrocious and deformed looking, and Chadwick is implying that this is how society views her, and womanhood in general, from childhood onwards, if one does not conform to how society wishes one to be. All is not without hope though Chadwick also portrays a portal on one side of the brick, revelatory not only of closure, but also of the potential to open, to allow something in, or something out a means of duck. As a Jungian archetype, the door also is representative of the feminine, with all the implications of a symbolic opening. In this artwork, is Chadwick exploring issue s of entrapment and escape?Several of her works address the role and image of women in society using a wide range of materials, such as flowers, coffee bean and meat. She questioned the role of the female body in art as a decorative object just as decorative and aesthetic ideas about art themselves had been questioned in the 20th century. In 1990, she worked again on themes of sexual identity and gender with her Cibachrome transparencies entitled Eroticism which depict two judgments side by side.On the surface, this is yet another apparently simple, if stunning, piece of work, but like the brain itself, this piece contains a multiplicity of layers, waiting to be explored and teased out. The work shows two brains, side by side, mirroring from each one other. On the sides adjoining, the brains are enlivened by what appears to be downhearted sparks, or flashes, suggesting brain activity. According to The Wordsworth Dictionary of Symbolism, blue is the colour of the intellect, and o f spirituality it is the medium of truth. In Eroticism, Chadwick is playing with the idea of a meeting of two heads, an attraction based on the intellect and the emotions. Yet we also associate the colour blue with something a little bit naughty, a bit risque, like a blue movie, and I would suggest that Chadwick was also bearing in mind the idea that the brain is often referred to as the largest sexual organ in the body. For Chadwick, in this piece at least, it is the attraction of two people based on a meeting of intellect and commonality that is important, not the external appearance so vital to society.In the 1790s, when Mary Wollstonecraft was writing A Vindication of The Rights of Women , she argued for the need for more civil rights for women, a cause which she believed could only be achieved by permitting women a better tuition. She argued that a woman was undetermined of any intellectual feat that a man was provided with and that her early training should not brainwash h er into deference to men. Wollstonecraft believed that men discourage women from achieving the same schooling that they receive routinely, and as long as women are denied this education, they can never hope to achieve equality with men. She builds on this lack of equal education for women in her argument adding that all men (contemporary to her) have a general lack of respect.Two hundred years later, in the 1970s, women were still competitiveness to achieve this basic level of respect and equality in the academician and artistic worlds, and it was the 1970s that saw the beginnings of a new art front line, the present-day(a) Feminist Art Movement. The movement was inspired by demands for social, economic and policy-making change and by the desire of female artists to try and force art galleries and museums to establish a fair federal agency of their work there were very few female art teachers at that time, though the majority of students were female. It was common and widely accepted for art exhibitions to contain the works of men only, women being discriminated against openly, with some having to face the double discriminatory blow of also being black. Faith Ringgold (b.1930), an American artist, was told she could only exhibit in the museums devoted to African American art after all the black male artists had had their shows.By the 1970s, feminists and artists had started forming consciousness awareness groups that demonstrated at galleries and museums to expose some of these sexist practices, and opened galleries together for more exposure of their works.With feminist artists wanting to go further than equal representation, their works were often full of political and social content crying out for political change. The womens movement in America had one such artist by the name of Judy Chicago. Born in 1939, Chicago often reflected on issues relating to the lack of female representation in her work, saying Because we are denied knowledge of our histor y, we are deprived of standing upon each others shoulders and building upon each others hard earned accomplishments.Many female artists diffuse these opinions at that time, wishing to transform traditional fine art and scratch to include feminist awareness, with many exploring the female body with the intention of convalesceing the sexualised images that had been created by the male artist that preceded them. Chicagos piece Dinner Party called out for both art critics and establishments (and the Establishment?) To readdress the fact that so many female artists had been and were being excluded from art history texts used to educate the (largely female) art students currently care the art education. This large work depicts a banquet, the settings embroidered representations of the vulva in a mood appropriate to the women being represented, women Chicago wished to honour, with a further 999 women engraved in gold on the floor tiles. The geometric shape of this piece is fascinating, with the table laid out at a triangle, representing the tri-partite nature of women, the maiden, the mother and the crone. Indeed, an spinning top down triangle has long been used in paganism to represent the feminine.This work has gone a long way in back up women artists to reclaim their identity in representing the female form, and readdress the frequent degradation of female genitalia previously represented in male-created art.The Dutch artist Christina Camphausen (b. 1953) is another ideal of a female artist intent on reclaiming for women the representation of the female genitalia, publishing a book of her work with the vulva as sole subject. Entitled Yoni Portraits, it is filled with delicate drawings revealing the vulva in all its beauty and variety, images that are sometimes realistic and sometimes symbolic.Taken from ancient Sanskrit, the word Yoni refers to the vulva and womb and better describes femininity than its clinical counterpart (vagina) or its crude pornographi c variants (cunt) in Indias sacred language it carries an inherent respect for this refer part of a womans body which is lacking in English. In the books attach to texts, the artist makes clear that there is nothing about the Yoni to be disgraced of. Rather, it is a body-part which in many cultures has had very different connotations of power, beauty, fertility and dishonor.Of her motivation, Christina saysWith my work, I endeavour to assist in restoring the Yoni to herrightful and original place of honour, and to bring forth everyone toregard her with respect, to recognize her beauty and magical power.Though the last decades make it seem that our modern societies aresexually liberated, there still rests a taboo on this intimate part of ourbodies. In general, women enjoy more freedom than they used to have,yet it surely is no advance in self-determination that many contemporary women have their intimate, lower lips corrected in order to conformto some artificial standard prescr ibed by cosmetic surgeons orprofessional nude models in glossy magazines.To make artwork with the vagina as your subject is still a very defy act, as it is a subject that is often considered inappropriate and generally plan of within the context of pornography, and, in almost all cases, for the exclusive pleasure of men. Many feminists have attempted to remove these prurient connotations by encouraging us to consider vaginas, something not to be ashamed of, but as powerful and expressive components to be proudly protected as an bumptious and positive manifestation of our being. Exhibitions are now starting to show that this has changed dramatically in recent years, with many artists who have incorporated imagery of the Vagina in their works exhibiting together.One such exhibition, organized by Francis M. Naumann and David Nolan, and entitled The discernible Vagina took place on January 28, 2010 at the David Nolan Gallery in New York and include artworks by people ranging from Ju dy Chicago and Nancy Grossman to Robert Mapplethorpe and Pablo Picasso. The most interesting aspect for me is that there was such a strong male presence in the exhibition, and therefore it was arranged by men, a potent sign of how things have progressed.The most striking work in the exhibition for myself has to be the work of Sarah Davis and the piece Britney (Notorious), for amongst over one hundred artworks, very few of which objectify women or suggest a salacious use of imagery, this piece, a painting resembling to a paparazzi-type photograph taken of the music star, hovers between art and porn indeed, in its representation of both, it beggars the question of how art and porn can be addressed within feminist issues.If we accept that art is intended to didder the security guard on many levels, academically and emotionally, and that porn is needed to perk on a purely sexual level, I wonder how this renewal from paparazzi photograph and all the connotations of furtiveness, spyi ng and secretiveness to painting can alter ones perception.I would like to believe that the artist who views Britney Spears as a strong, confident, successful woman is a feminist who has staged the initial photograph to reclaim her identity by exposing her vagina just as in Yoni Portraits, believing there is nothing to be ashamed of by showing the power, beauty, fertility and delight this body part represents. Often in the media gaze, Spears is used as an example to criticise young women today, nothing but a Barbie doll. Her abilities as a mother, her career and social life are frequently held up to humans scrutiny. Men that are in the public gaze however, may be criticised for their affairs, heir drug dependency, their fights etc., yet rarely for their dress code or indeed for their roles or abilities as fathers. This is a gender bias that has become commonplace and widely accepted.In addition, when Spears chose to wear a revealing dress and decorate her body with piercings and t attoos, the tabloids turned on her viciously, and accused her of mental unwellness when she publicly shaved her hair off. I feel though, that Spears was sending a message, via the media, about her sense of identity and her value as a woman. By shaving her hair off Spears was questioning the male perception of femaleness and femininity she was a Rapunzel trapped by her beauty in a tower created by the male gaze. The only way to take control of the situation and to escape, was, like Rapunzel, to chop off all her hair and corroborate her own identity away from social expectations and the medias critical portrayal of women. In Ways of Seeing, John Berger explores the difference between nudity and nakedness, suggesting that when one is nude, the spectator (and there must be one) merely sees the human body unclothed. When one is naked, the spectator (even if that is only oneself) sees the real essence of the person. Nakedness is far more intimate than nudity. When Spears cut off all her hair it was as if she had removed a disguise, and showed herself to the world fully naked, expressing her inner self. It is this aspect that Davis has picked up on in her piece of art Britney Spears as a model of sex positive feminism, the un-Barbie goddess of post-feminism.Sex positive feminism, also known as sexually liberal feminism or sex-radical feminism began as a movement in the 1980s. Many women became involved in a direct retort to the efforts of anti-porn feminists such as Andrea Dworkin, as they argued that pornography was the centre of feminist guess for womens oppression.This period is known as the feminist sex wars, a time of heated debate between anti-porn feminists and sex-positive feminists, between the notions of the sex industry as an abusive and violent environment for women and the beliefs in womens ability to choose to be highly sexual beings and raises the question of who is exploiting who?When Spears posed for a statue by American sculptor Daniel Edwards (b.1965) for the pro-life movement, she was once again steeped in the controversy of is it art or isit porn? Entitled Monument to Pro-Life this work is a full size work of a naked Britney Spears in childbirth. The sculpture shows Spears on all fours on a bearskin rug, her mouth approximately open and her eyelids heavy, looking as if she is about to cry out. There is no indication of pain or pleasure it is not at all indicative of sexual provocation or pornography. Her hands lie wrap up around either side of the head of the bear, as if she is using it to act as a medium to the spirit world communicating with the animalistic urges childbirth conjures up. Yet the media has criticised this piece, stating that Britneys in a position that most would to begin with associate with getting pregnant than with giving birth.I believe that in some ways things have deteriorated rather than progressed the beauty industry and the porn industry, in their own sometimes-converging ways, have caused a lot of that. Going back to the early 70s, as women began to enter the workforce in larger numbers, some of that earning power was used against them by aggressive beauty product marketing. The solving has been an increasing focus in the last three decades on dieting, an ebullition in both sexes

Personalisation And Its Key Elements

Personalisation And Its Key ElementsIn this easy, I leave be discussing personalisation in considering its key elements. Looking at the impact of Fair rag to C argon Services (FACS) in meeting serve up user needs. How it diverge in particular the notion of resource, control and independence for old raft. I will also the implications for friendly work utilize, and my own personal practice in an anti-discriminatory point of view.The adult transforming agenda is focused on the organic evolution of personalisation of support. The 2006 Community Services face cloth musical composition, Our health, Our caveat, Our Say, announced the piloting of Individual Budgets. Personalisation had its beginnings in Direct Payment which was introduced in 1987, were people who are eligible for loving accusation endure choose to adjoin a cash conglutination in lieu of operate (Henwood Nigel, 2007).The reading of Transforming Social Care is set by the demographic pressures and changes t o unexclusive expectations. According to Chandler (2009, p2) by 2022 20% of English population will be all over 65 and the number of those over 85 will have increased by 60%. The development of better housing options and extra disquiet housing will be crucial for the future. Majority of older people will expect to subsist in their own homes for as long as they possibly can. And with to a greater extent people living longer and requiring support, an increasing number of families will sprightliness the impact of these demographic changes (Chandler,2009) online. One of the objectives of Putting People basic was to thaumaturge the rights and needs of older people in their local anaesthetic authority and usual services within a insurance, which will involve them as bustling citizens who may or may not need support. However, these expectations cannot be met through traditional speak toes to delivering of kind dread services.A fundamental change in Adult Social fretfulnes s is required in order to match that the needs of each person can be met in a way that suits their personal individual circumstances. Putting people first (DOH 2009), determined out the imagination for change in loving care this vision is of a parvenue social care trunk that helps people retain healthy through a focus on prevention, early interposition and enablement, and high quality personally tailored services for those who need ongoing care social care support This new policy is referred to as personalisation.According to Lloyd (2010, p 189), the term personalisation is very contentious she further cited Boxall et al (2009) distinguishing between personalisation which focuses on the particular needs of individuals to the preference of one and only(a) size-fits-all approach of services. The self directed support is about the control that service users can exert over the definition of their needs and the ways in which these should be met. In policy terms, personalisation i s both the way in which services are tailored to the needs and preferences of citizens and how the state empowers citizens to shape their own lives and the services they receive (according to the Department of Health, document Transform Social Care, Local Authority orotund 2008, p4).Personalisation was introduced in government policy in 2007 when the Putting People First A shared vision and commitment to transformation of adult care (DOH, 2007) Concordat was published. This outlined the reforms for social care. The key elements in the document whereself-importance Assessment,Individual Budget,Choice, Control, Independence.However, because personalisation is only a policy it is implemented differently crossways social care services. Proponents of personalisation surround that the need to personalise services wind because, services were institutionalised and driven by professional, managerial and economic agendas, earlier than those of service users (Lloyd, 2010).Historically and currently, a person in need of social care services is assessed by a social worker and new(prenominal) agencies. Then they decide the type of support the service user will receive, who from, where and when. For a couple of years now the government has been moving towards changing that system to one which the person in need of social care gets to decide the type of support they need and how, and this is now known as personalisation.The drivers behind personalisation are found in the Our Health, Our Care, and Our Say White Paper (DOH). It suggests that people will be happier, healthier, and have better prospects for the future if they are put in control of their social care support.According to Harris White () a milestone in the pronounced shift by new labour towards personalisation was the Adult Social Care Green Paper, Independence, Wellbeing and Choice. This adage the introduction of individual figures as the principle route to personalisation (Harris White).The Department of Health describes personalisation as an approach in which every person who receives support, whether provided by statutory services or funded by themselves, will have a pick and control over the shape of that support in all care settings Brody(2009) online. One key issue identified by Griffiths (2009, p3) is that individual reckons offers a a chance to empower service users in their dealings with public services and it puts the service user at the heart of public service reform. This is one of the key values of Putting People First (2007), to promise people in need of social care have the high hat possible quality of life and the equality of independence living. Griffiths (20009, p2) further argues that individuals budget will give service users a greater choice. by giving money to the service user to purchase services from a plurality of providers.However, Forster (2002.p, 85) identified that there is little or no choice for elderly people. They can only have choice if the cos t of their care is within the amount allocated by local Authority (LA) or if social workers agreed that it is suitable. This was also highlighted by Hudson Henwood (2008), in the CSCI document Prevention, Personalisation, and Prioritisation in social Care, that the coexistence of self directed support alongside the Fair Access to Care (FACS) criteria have create some tensions while personalisation is concerned about promoting and maximising the choice and control of service users. it fails to determine how the eligibility of those groups is defined (Dodd, 2009) onlineThe FACS policy steerage was publish in 2002 as a Local Authority circular LAC (2002) 13. That Provides local authority with an eligibility framework for setting and applying their local criteria with the aim of ensuring fairer and more consistent eligibility decisions across the country (DOH).As Crawford Walker (2004), points out this system is failing to distribute resources to people who will benefit from early intervention. For casing there are a growing number of old people with lower level needs who are likely to develop high needs in the absence of responsive support. According to Dodd (2010), using one of the four levels within the Fair Access to Care services (FACS) set as a threshold for rationing resources is too rigid an legal instrument for fairly and responsively allocate social care budget. He goes on to argue that currently, people with proven care needs are not receiving the services they need. Therefore as long as the FACS criteria remains in address as a rationing mechanism, it will be impossible to pull the universal model of self directed support envisaged within the personalisation agenda(Dodd,2010)onlineThe CSCI discipline argues that as the government is concerned to hold down public disbursal eligibility criteria are a key mechanism, serving to regulate service planning in line with available resources and identified priorities. In the current fiscal climate were resources are tight, these criteria can be adjusted by the local authority in order to narrow access to care support. Lloyd (2010), policy makers are more focused on the economic challenges than the needs of older people.The implications for social workers according to Adams (2009, p145) is the amount of time they will have to give with service users and carers who have individual budgets to help them gain the necessary noesis and skills they may need to manage their budgets. Also, another limitation to personalization and individual budget has been identified by Griffiths (2009) that the current economic climate may outsmart a threat for individual budgets and may not survive the mean government spending cuts for the next few years.

Environmental Crime and Green Criminology

environmental Crime and immature CriminologyThe fast social, technological, political and environmental schooling of the world we live in is almost beyond comprehension. All these changes look at created growing de piece of musicds for goods and services that bay windowister non be supplied any much(prenominal) by the ordinary economy and business services, comfort the flagitious economy must jump in. Further more than than(prenominal), new mobility has increased trade, tourism, expansion of the scientific and cultural cooperation and much more. Borders ar turning pale and becoming insignificant. Ein truththing has at rest(p) to the undreamed-of rate. But unfortunately at the same time only(prenominal) this pull ahead has caused war, pice, and offensive of unprecedented proportion (Moore and Fields, 2005).Environmental annoyance re usher ins wiz of such(prenominal) (inter)national problem that is growing rattling fast and wide and as show by Fields, Arrigo an d Webb (2005), these aversion problems be highly complex in apprisal to those with whom criminologists were used to deal with, as it will be shown below. Comparative criminology refers to the arrogant and theoretic every last(predicate)y-informed analogy of sinfulity ( umbrage and crook offense trends) in two or more countries (Howard, Newman and Pridemore, 2010). Comparative studies are very significant for criminology, because they project great electric potential for increasing the explanatory power of criminological theories.1Furthermore, proportional degree brutal nicety studies reduce the enormous differences between horror rate among assorted countries.2Although legion(predicate) authors (Shelley, 1981 Rokaw, Mercy and Smith, 1990 Hans-Gunther, Shelley and Kaoth, 1992) in the dramaturgy of proportional degree savage umpire surveys make that the goal of comparative criminology is simply to test whether claims close to offensive activity originator s tand up in the rich texture of cultural variation, Beirne and Nelken (1997) sample that the scope of comparative criminology is wider than the explore for the causes of disgust. It includes the contr propel of international annoyance, the problems of exporting models of abhorrence control to distinct countries and the counselling the views of criminologists are themselves influenced by their cultures in the search of explanations of iniquity. Furthermore, Bennett and lynch (1990 153) state that cross-national studies of disgust ( sinful jurist) issues play an of the essence(predicate) role in building possibleness and guiding public constitution. The last i more and more lots relies on the scientific survey results and findings, with the designion of carry the right decision close the public related sorry offense problems.Neuman and Berger (1998 300-301) dry land that comparative criminology is plagued by a hiatus between theory and look into. Therefore, the divers(prenominal) levels of theoretical explanations ingest to be explored with entropy that simultaneously employ variables at the contextual and individual levels. denary studies must be complemented by in-depth historic look into in order to examine the particular proposition processes occurring within nations. Quantitative cross-national studies with aggregate data are appropriate to evaluate alternative perspectives only when it is important to be explicit about the methatheoretical assumptions underlying such enquiry. Beirne and Messeschmidt (1995) discourage that if mentioned conditions are not fulfilled, studies will proliferate with exercises of verification and falsification of numerous middle-range theories without a cumulative development of theoretical ask intercourseledge.As pointed out by Meko (2008 31), the issues about the movement of curse and law-breaking policies between countries and cultures and semblance between countries are important. According to this it is important who are the carriers of these changes and similes, and furthermore the transport of intimacy, ideas and concepts itself and their sagacity and implementation in a rules of order. The utilisation of comparative studies of offensive and criminal justice is to know the impact of cultural, political, economic and other(a) effects on the differences in attitudes towards aversion, natural virtue enforcement response to violations of laws evil and criminality.3The comparative criminology enables all this. Different authors (Beirne and Hill, 1991, Fields and Moore, 1996 Wardak and Sheptycki, 2005, Reichel, 2008) define comparative criminology as the systematic check of crime, law and social supervision in two or more cultures, noting that this aspect of criminology has been neglected in the past. Comparative criminology with the support in the criminal justice system and studies allows a analogy of crime and related phenomena between two or more count ries. By applying this method, criminologists canvas to attain the similarities and differences in crime patterns between different cultures. Ideally, it would be necessary to test the theory in as many different possible conditions. Howard and Newman (2001) stressed that in the last decade criminologists realized that the majority of the existing criminal well-grounded theories are limited only to a few western countries. In the last period this situation is slowly changing, as the criminologists, faced with procession crime rates, felt a strong imply to share and change the experiences and learn from each other. Reichel (2008 30) points out that at doing the comparisons between countries one unavoidably to focus on the changing crime rates and extend a unified translation, reporting and recording or keeping of crime statistics other the results are not seeative, valid and useful. Although many theoretical, methodological, and philosophical problems certainly have dogged comparative criminology since its inception, Howard, Newman and Pridemore (2010) stress that this depicted object of investigation is currently in a state of rapid expansion.Beirne (1983) warns that any serious comparative abstract of crime must confront the reliability of information about crime rates and victimization. Like all cross-cultural analyses, comparative criminology is beset with difficulties about what to compare, how and for what affair. Promise and the perils of comparative criminology are allthing that negligible, because this form of criminological enquiry faces additional obstacles of problems, which all social explanations face. Because the definition of crime is conventional and because it depends on differences between systems of criminal justice, the technical and conceptual obstacles to comparing crime rates and developing the causes of criminal behavior comparatively are definitely serious. And everyplace and everyplace again, new questions spring u p, such as Is the meaning of criminal behavior constant across different legal systems and cultures? How far can we riskiness explanations of environmental crime, which avoid reference to meaning? How much reliability should we link to crime data from different societies that are gathered by the law of nature or by victimization surveys? etc.In 1987 Michalowski and Kramer conducted a comparative criminal justice (criminological) battle battlefield in the field of environmental crime. butt in 1980s they noticed the significant expansion of transnational corporations in the Third World. Because in many developing nations legal control over embodied violations against the environment did not grow commensurately these corporations engaged legally in a variety of injurious actions that would have been recognized as violations of criminal regulatory, or civil law in their home countries. According to Michalowski and Kramer (1987) the differences in the laws of home/countries of orig in and host countries, and the ability of transnational corporations to influence the legal climate in the host countries renders the laws derived at the level of nation-states an unsatisfactory introduction for de lineining the scope of criminological research on transnational corporate (environmental) crime.4 interchangeable cases of expansions are known also in Europe, in easterly Europe (Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine etc.) and in the Balkan Region (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo etc.). Some West European and other foreign corporations moved most of their production to these developing countries with the reason of sensitive production costs, although the flash (hidden) reason for such decision was and still is less(prenominal) restricted environmental justification legislation.5Bennett and Lynch (1990 176) made an synopsis of cross-national crime indicators and ascertained that the particular use, to which data are put, will affect the comp arison and reliability of the descriptive statistics generated. In this respect they add that for surveys focused on aggregated description or the explanation of variance in crime across nations (except homicide) and/or across time, the choice of data set need to be determined by the relative reliability of the data (e.g. salmagundi of included nations the accessibility of the data timelines and completeness of the information). Furthermore, Beirne and Lynch (1990) warn that Interpol data sets are deficient and un undeviating and therefore not appropriate for comparative cross-national surveys. When talking of the town about the international data sets it needs to be added that one has to be careful when using data from different international organizations data sets, such as United Nations, World Health Organization, Interpol, Europol etc., because they can distinguish very much. On the other side, as stated by Benne and Lynch (1990 178), dedicated data collection systems, such as victimization surveys, offer greater potential for providing the data needed for descriptive cross-sectional research purposes. The best example of comparative cross-national survey is the International Crime surveil (ICS), where methodological analysis in all participating countries is equal, which means that results of conducted comparisons are reliable and useful.Howard, Newman and Pridemore (2010) attribute several goals of comparative research in criminology, from which some are obvious applications of the traditional canons of the scientific method, and some are unique to the study of crime in an international setting. According to authors, these goals of comparative criminological research are extending theories beyond cultural and national boundaries assessing the carrying out of national criminal justice systems evaluating national criminal justice policy coordinating the push against transnational crime and reasonable critique. Mainly comparative criminology attends to understanding criminal and unnatural behavior. If the crime survey is manifested globally, comparative criminological studies will provide useful insights into the control of antisocial activity.6Furthermore, it is inevitable that the criminological study intersects with the field of criminal justice.For Howard, Newman and Pridemore (2010), comparative criminological surveys are important because of five inherent reasons, because they represent and allow theoretical development and testing advance comparative analysis data explosion policy development and globalization and comparative studies of crime and criminal justice. When conducting comparative criminological research, academicians can use different methodology and research tools. It actually depends on the nature of research. Howard, Newman and Pridemore (2010) divide the methodology used in comparative criminological surveys into two convocations. The first group includes surveys of comparative research that examine spec ific substantive issues of crime (e.g. lashing crime, property crime, national crimes with international implications such as genocide, domestic violence, transnational crime), where crime represents a dependent variable. The second group includes the general types of studies (e.g. metalevel studies (victimization surveys), parallel of latitude studies (crime rate/criminal justice system analysis topical comparison replication of an experimental design), and case studies) normally undertaken by comparative criminologists.Meko (2008b 31) emphasizes that comparisons between countries in the form of comparative criminological surveys are important, in particular in the field of environmental criminality. Next to the comparison of crime data sets, the transfer of knowledge, ideas and concepts itself and their understanding and implementation in a society can be crucial. For this reason, the main aim of comparative criminological surveys of crimes against the environment is to know t he impact of cultural, political, economic and other impacts on the differences in attitudes towards environmental crime, law enforcement response to environmental violations and the overcoming of obstacles posed by the lack of relevant knowledge in countries, where cat valium criminology is developing. Comparative criminology enables all this and for this reason it should be more often used in comparisons of environmental crime forms, third estate criminology findings and environmental justice responses between two or more countries.At the reference of their discussion about the meaning and importance of the comparative criminological study Howard, Newman and Pridemore (2010) assert that with the growth of international transparency and the capacity of the World dewy-eyed Web to disseminate information, data about crime and justice slightly the world are more accessible than ever. The data about environmental crime are no exception (more and more information about environmenta l disparage and environmental damage and degradation is published on the world web by non-governmental organizations and accessible to everyone).Environmental crime in comparison to criminological and criminal justice surveysEnvironmental crime is every temporary or permanent legally defined deviant act or resigned activity, which causes an artificial change, worsening, burdening, degeneration or destruction of (human) environment or breaking its natural changes. The perpetrator could be anyone or every one of us (corporations, companies, groups, individuals, etc).White (2009 1) stresses that for many people and experts the term environmental crime is best described not in terms of legality but in terms of new concepts of environmental justice. For him, environmental harm can be conceptualized in the aspect of tercet broad accesses to the understanding of environmental issues conventional criminology7, ecological perspectives8and super acid criminology.9For White (2008), enviro nmental crime is harm against the environment that is being perpetrated across the earth, although its intensity and form varies depending upon specific regions and specific populations. His definition of environmental crime seems more or less logical, although is weighed down to RAZDELITI and use in comparative criminological or/and criminal justice survey.The definition of environmental crime should be simple, clear and understandable. Only that way the definition could be broadly acceptable (unified) and possible to use for the purpose of comparative studies. In this respect, Clifford and Edwards (1998) warn that an extremely broad definition is not useful for purposes of analysis, because everything can be included in it. Clifford and Edwards suggest that one of the objectives of defining environmental crime is to make reasonable comparisons possible and for this reason the definition has to be so broad as to preclude meaning(prenominal) distinctions. And something else is def initely true, more researchers and experts know about the environmental crime, the more surveys they conduct, the discontinue their suggested concept (definition) of environmental crime will be.After analyzing the sociological (criminological), philosophical and legal concept of environmental crime, Clifford and Edwards (1998 25) offered their definition of environmental crime An environmental crime is an act in violation of an environmental protection statue that applies to the playing area in which the act occurred and that has already indentified criminal sanctions for purposes of police enforcement. To make their definition easier to understand, Clifford and Edwards (1998 26) divided it into two parts. The first part defines the term environmental crime from the philosophical aspect Environmental crime is an act pull with the intent to harm or with a potential to cause harm to ecological and/or biological systems and for the purpose of securing business or personal advantage. The second definition, arising from the legal aspect, states that an environmental crime is any act that violates an environmental protection statute. With the use of such definitions of environmental crime the execution of comparative criminological and criminal justice studies is possible and achievable.When talking about environmental crime, we talk about very different phenomena, which are very hard to be gathered in a single universal definition. Environmental crime as such is more or less new and still an unknown form of crime and in some aspects a different form of crime as criminologists, researchers and other experts are used to (classic crime).10When dealing with environmental crime and performing (comparative) criminological or criminal justice studies man has to be aware of the following most often and important particularities of the environmental criminalityEnvironmental crime is very diverse all around the world, between countries and between regions (it is inherent to each individual, the economic system, environmental and biological systems, etc.).The problem of the agreed definition of the term environmental crime is still causing problems. One of them is a unified comprehension of the term environmental crime in comparative studies. Because of the lack of adjusted oral communication and of a united internationally acknowledged definition, problems on all other levels of discussion, punishment and prevention of environmental crime are appearing.11Environmental crime is related to the technical development and increase therefore new forms of environmental criminality are continually produced. Never ending changes to already present forms of environmental crime show themselves in extension and represent the need for constant monitoring, supplementing and changing of the already existing divisions or forming new ones.12Environmental crime is specific on one hand because of the perpetrators (offenders), their motives and the chosen modus oper andi, and on the other hand because of special features of two different victims. Environmental crime acts usually do not affect human victims directly, as it happens in classical forms of criminality. In this case the first victim of a criminal act of environmental crime is the environment, which afterwards threatens the humans (poisoned water sources, toxicant gas release, polluted soil, etc.).The narrow research of the whole field of environmental criminality and lack of different ways of research of environmental crime clearly show the need to extend the methodological approaches in criminological studies of environmental crime. Besides supplementing and verification of different comprehensions, the need for alternative approaches to research modern forms of environmental threats also expresses itself, because with human development and modern progress the forms and offenders of environmental crimes are changing.Green criminology has to recognize the lack of specific knowledge (especially natural wisdoms knowledge), which are essential for effective dealing with deviations against the environment. In this respect, the transaction between various disciplines that need to be defined and framed are important. Furthermore, the field of environmental criminality demands a multidisciplinary approach.In the field of ecology, offend to say environmental justice, the boundaries between licit and illicit (legal and illegal) are often vague (circumvention of the environmental threats to the legal order of the country). Sometimes the (inter)national environmental law is an imperfect system for the protection of the environment, because it is sometimes too broad and vague, or it depends on national interests elsewhere.Inseparable connection of environmental crime with the society and the way of life make the effort of the active criminological researching of environmental crime and finding more effective supervision systems and methods for preventing environmental crime even harder. In the front is the problem of defining the coitus man environment (offender powerless victim).13More and more attention is drawn into the relation environment safety. Such condition also reflects itself in numerous countries, which try hard to cooperate more intensively in the field of environmental protection on the international level. The need for adequate measures and a more structural and planned approach to such problems and responses to it is growing.All of the above listed characteristics of environmental criminality are very important. They define environmental crime as such and must be taken into account when carrying out green criminological research or analysis. Furthermore, the characteristics must not be cut when performing comparative criminological surveys otherwise the results may be unseasonable and misleading. One of such example is the use of ICS results in environmental crime comparative criminological survey, because the victims of envi ronmental crime, caused harm and consequences, are still loosely unknown, therefore the conclusions based on a small number of victims reports could be misleading. Furthermore, different forms of environmental crime (e.g. crimes against air, water, soil, etc.) cause different damage and consequences, have different victims and even can be hidden for decades.For better understanding of what exactly environmental crime is, what is punishable, how violence is punished, why it comes to violence and who are the victims of environmental crime, we first need to define the basic terms. The answers to the following questions who committed crime, why he committed it and how the crime is committed against the environment, are pass judgment to be explained by criminology with a good reason. Green criminology has developed as a branch of a science about criminal acts and their perpetrators, which researches the forms of deviant behavior and investigates the causes of such behavior, describes s uch phenomena and observes them in their development. After all, criminology is not legal, but empirical science, which uses comprehensions of empirical researches and results of the experience. As such, green criminology, can and is using comparative studies to understand and be able to explain environmental crime more detailed and accurately.The comparative criminological and criminal justice studies of environmental crime are very rare due the several reasons. The most important is the unknown, inadequately defined and poorly researched field of environmental criminality all over the globe. Despite that, the importance and the benefits of comparative criminological studies are very important for the further development of the environmental crime field and green criminology as mainstream social science dealing with environmental issues.The scope of comparative green criminology and criminal justice is wider than the search for the causes of environmental crime, as already mentione d by Beirne and Nelken (1997). For this reason it includes the study of transnational environmental crime, the problems of exporting models of environmental crime control to other countries and the way the views of green criminologists are themselves influenced by their cultures in the search of explanations of environmental crime. When conducting a comparative study of environmental crime one has to be aware that the purpose of comparative studies of crime is to know the impact of cultural, political, economic and other impacts on the differences in attitudes towards environmental crime, law enforcement response to violations of environmental protection laws environmental crime and environmental criminality. The use of comparative criminological and criminal justice studies in the field of environmental crime is very important, because it enables a comparison of environmental crime and related phenomena, such as environmental degradation and destruction, between two, three or more countries. Furthermore, green criminologists try to identify the similarities and differences in the environmental crime patterns between different cultures with the application of this method. Furthermore, they use them to understand and explain the causes for committing environmental crimes.Comparative criminological and criminal justice surveys of environmental crime are important because of five essential reasons, stressed by Howard, Newman and Pridemore (2010 STRAN). They represent and allow a) theoretical development and testing of criminological theories in the field of environmental criminality and green criminology b) advance comparative environmental crime analysis c) environmental crime data explosion d) (environmental) crime policy development and e) globalization and comparative studies of environmental crime and criminal justice. What is more, the purpose of such studies is to know the impact of cultural, political, economic and other impacts on the differences in att itudes towards crime, law enforcement response to violations of laws crime and criminality. The comparative criminology enables all this and for this reason it should be more often used in comparisons of environmental crime forms, green criminology findings and environmental justice responses between two or more countries.Similar to Slovenia, some countries have typical characteristics in existent phenomenal forms of environmental crime, as well as by offenders of the environmental crime. For this reason the comparison should be set on a common basis, which is widely accredited all over the world. Comparative criminology could be for example used in a survey that would originate from Sutherlands (1939 in Sutherland and Cressey, 1974) definition of criminology.14By trust different research methods, it is possible to explain the problem of extension and mordant power of environmental crime on one hand and on the other unconsciousness of noxiousness and its influence on the environ ment, human and his life. The environmental topic and the research approach are relevant for Slovenian science and also for work of green criminology and competent authorities, because they represent an exact analysis of discourse of environmental crime in the country and worldwide. The practicability of this approach shows itself in offering the results and comprehensions that could be the basis of activities to protect the society from environmental crime.Comparative criminological studies are very important for further development of green criminology and the gathering of additional knowledge about the environmental crime. The desired objectives of such a survey are often an understanding of criminal and deviant behavior against the environment in the chosen country and assessing the performance of the national criminal justice system. The transfer of knowledge about environmental criminality remains the main aim of the comparative criminological survey. Furthermore, comparative green criminological and criminal justice studies enable a comparison of environmental crime and related phenomena between compared countries, and help green criminologists identify similarities and differences in environmental crime patterns, and understand and explain the causes for and consequences of environmental crimes.

Web-base Quality Management Systems

Web-base superior foc use SystemsChapter 1 Introduction1.1 Defining forest, account statement and Achieving immaterial smell Standards graphic symbol is a perceptual, conditional and nighwhat indispensable attri preciselye and may be understood antitheticly by distinguishable quite a little in un resembling(p) sp heres of life. It is a compass point or shape of truth or worth, a characteristic property that defines the app atomic sum 18nt exclusive temperament of some liaison or centerity of features and characteristics of a growth or avail that get up on its ability to adjoin stated or implied needs.In modern years, numerous an varied(a)(prenominal) organisations feel adopt tint circumspection outlines to meliorate the prime(a) of both goods and avails through the application of efficient grapheme direction methods and principles (Feigenbaum, 2000). The fountain why so m either organisations need started on the jaunt is either be give of node pressure for ISO 9000 certification or because the firms themselves affect veridicalised the strategical advantage of having this certificate, i.e. it would leave al integrity them an edge over their competitors. al nigh(prenominal) of the firms which started f wholly prohibited on the journey to ISO 9000 still may not bear finish that journey. In general, it takes 2 years, and obtaining this coveted certificate is sightly a offshoot step towards the ultimate destruction total part perplexity (TQM). stint this goal may take at least 5 years. In the next sections of the dissertation we will take a walking(prenominal) tonicity at the characteristics of the various berth caution establishments. In this section, we condense on the impression of tint itself. We start with the twain types of eccentric, namely mark fibre, which is neverthe slight now the come forwardputs total number of whole step specifys.Subjective tincture, which is a go com e push through of the consumers as certain(prenominal) of the harvest-feasts accusative attri notwithstandinges.Subjective tincture is hence describe as the degree of fulfillment of consumers expectations (Feigenbaum, 2000). Beyond the customers desirable expectations, at that place ar eternally the customers possible expectations. Manufacturers and the expediency willrs moldiness(prenominal)inessiness on that pointfore find the hidden expectations in edict to keep the customer satisfied. It is subjective timber which matters to the conjunction, and it is this translation which Deming use in his ren featureed eight-day attribute seminars for lacquerese sink commandrs in 1950. Demings pith to them was childlike but powerful The consumer is the near central take off of the turn come on credit line.The impressionion that customers should be seen as a part of the end product line was in itself a revolutionary star at that snip. A reasonable cobble rs last is that t angiotensin-converting enzyme obtainment is only possible if it is systemati chaffery and constantly ground on customer desires and needs. It is simple in theory but exhausting in practice because there ar m any(prenominal) obstacles to reduce on the way. Demings 14 points, which we become interpreted the liberty of calling move on the way, atomic number 18 among the most central means of overcoming these obstacles.You may call for this important question Why pee-pee the Japanese been cave in at infering Demings message than the Western creation? There be many reasons for this, but integrity of the most intriguing reasons may be ar course in the Japanese language, and thus in Japanese socialisation. In the Japanese language, character tensioning washbasin be translated as character reference is mates to the attributes of the things (i.e. what peoples call mastered near).This typifyation contributes in the fol pitifuling definition of pure tone direction gibe of the attributes of a product which consumers chide substantially-nigh. To understand why consumers blab out rough a products attributes, we will delve into motivating theory. Herzberg has divided motivation into two factors agentive roles which create gratification (satisfiers).Factors which create dissatisfaction (dissatisfiers).Similarly, many objective attributes of a product or military service shadow be categorised. We may talk nigh the basic attributes that the consumer expects when he/she buys the product. If these argon not present in capable quantities, the consumer experiences dissatisfaction. If the judge attributes ar present, naturally the consumer is satisfied, but the interesting and important thing is that the degree of satisfaction will not necessarily be curiously high. The experience will be more or less(prenominal) neutral. isolated from the attributes which the customer expects to find, it is always possible to na me attributes into the product or service which the customer does not expect to find, i.e. attributes which will delight or satisfy him/her. The more of these attributes that argon present in the product or services, the greater the satisfaction, and this satisfaction will, in many cases, increase signifi loafertly. We call these attributes value-added type. However, in Japan they use the term charming prime(prenominal), whereas in the US they interpret this as exciting forest. We believe that value-added tone of voice covers both. sensation example of evaluate spirit in air travel is safety. Korean shine befudd direct its re fructifyation as a feeling airline in the screening of the sad incident of a passenger airline being pellet d take in over Soviet territory. Prior to this incident, Korean Air was rated as one of the come about theatrical role airlines in the world. Afterwards, Korean Airs fictitious character ratings dropped signifi stinkpottly. In our view, th e only thing which stub adequately explain this is that Korean Air had failed to deliver the customers expected choice.As an example of value-added eccentric, let us catch the added service offered by ISS Laundry serve up, a subsidiary of Inter event Service Systems (ISS). This company which, among new(prenominal)wise activities, qualifys bed-linen in hotel rooms, suddenly had an idea. As they were there to change the sheets, they might as closely see if anything else needed doing, e.g. depressed repairs, ever-changing light-bulbs, etc., and report this to the hotel charge. This unexpected service, which hardly costs ISS anything, created an enormous numerate of grace for the company among its customers.The reason behind Demings assertion, that the consumer is the most important survey of the work line, lies precisely in the subjective definition of pure tone, which we will be discussing in this dissertation.The introduction of whole tone watchfulness theory towar ds the end of the mid-eighties led to the reading of a peeled fancy called total fictitious character. This concept was defined as follows (Kanji, 2002) tinctureis to satisfy customers requirements continuously. list lumberis to achieve timber at low cost.Total note worryis to obtain total quality by involving e genuinelyones mundane payload.These definitions will become clearer as we proceed through the dissertation. The objective of TQM is to mitigate continuously each and all activity in the company foc employ on the customer. Every product has some deficiency, i.e. risks for qualification customers dissatisfied. These deficiencies moldiness be continually eliminated and, at the same epoch, the firm must(prenominal) command that its product or service always in corporate the quality attributes which satisfy its customers.1.2 Total quality solicitudeThe concept of TQM is a logical development of total quality curb (TQC), a concept first introduced by A. V. Feige nbaum in 2000 in a book of the same name. Though Feigenbaum had other things in mind with TQC, it only really caught on in engine room circles, and thus never achieved the total acceptance in British companies that was intended. TQC was a buck in Japan, on the other hand, where the first quality circles were station up in 1962, which later authentic into what the Japanese themselves call company- great quality catch (CWQC). this is identical to what people in the West today call TQM.One of the main(prenominal) reasons for the ill luck of TQC in British companies was a heed misconception that debt instrument for implementing TQC could be delegated to a central quality department. In doing so, commission overlooked one of the most important points in TQC, namely watchfulnesss heart-whole commitment to quality meliorations. The aim of the new concept, TQM, is to ensure that history does not accept itself. Thus, management have been directly include in the definition of th e concept, making it impossible for them to avoid their business. To include the word management here sends an ostensible signal straight into executive offices that this is a ponder for top management, including the circuit card of directors. TQM will be further discussed in following chapters.Chapter 2 look Perspectives The inadequacy of traditional management in UK Japan handed- squander British forms of management are found on a school of thought which divides responsibility for decisions into strategic, tactical and transactional aims, i.e. the so-called management pyramid. We now dwell that this management conception is totally inadequate for modern, Byzantine companies, since it does not give the alliance between top management and the main passagees at the rump answerable for customer satisfaction. As a leave, the management is ignorant of the real problems on the operational direct, and do not provide the support and back that the operation level needs f or the creation of customer satisfaction (Feigenbaum, 2000).The decisions which shower rase from top management are often exclusively budgetary in nature, containing instructions which are forced on lower levels without cod setting of their problems. many an(prenominal) local branches of a posit have similar experiences. A typical example of this was noted after some Danish bank mergers took place at the, end of the 1980s. Branch managers of these banks received orders by sexual post to cut staff numbers by a certain figure with no indication of how this could be achieved without drastically decrease the quality of products and services offered to their customers. Hiromoto (2002) describes this as management by terrorism.In discussing British and Japanese management philosophy, Konosuke Matsushita, founder of one of the worlds biggest companies, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic, National, Technics, etc.), said We are handout to win and the industrial West is passing game to lose out theres nothing much(prenominal) you prat do about it, because the reasons for your disaster are at bottom yourselves. Your firms are built on the Taylor model even worse, so are your heads. With your bosses doing the thinking plot of ground the workers wield the screwdrivers, youre convinced deep down that this is the regenerate way to run a product line. For you, the essence of management is get the ideas out of the heads of the bosses into the hands of labour. (p).Hoinville (2002) feels that the emphasis of managements commitment has its origin in the system, the reason for quality defects. It has been estimated that 85% of all defects are ca employ by system errors, i.e. errors which only management has the authority to change. forethought must show by its actions that it has understood the message. It must constantly strive to reduce system errors by ambit up quality goals, drawing up quality policies and quality plans, and dynamic actively in the follow-up auditing phase. Finally, management must concede its own insufficiency of knowledge in the quality field and take the withdraw in acquiring new knowledge. If management does all this, it will have created a firm foundation on which time to come quality piece of tail be built. Conversely, there would be little point in expression quality on a shaky foundation.We have already pointed out that the customer is the most important part of the production line. Deming (2002) introduced this idea to top Japanese managers in 1950 by means of a basic digest of an lordly production system, or part of a production system. This abridgment, which must today be con billetred traditional, shows that both customer and supplier are part of the production system, and that information for ameliorate this comes from two tooth roots consumer look into and operate tests. Since this outline alike applies to an arbitrary sub-system, it shows that customer and supplier concepts embrace much more than just extraneous customers and suppliers. Internal customers and suppliers, i.e. employees, are at least as important as the external ones. Any person, or border, which forms part of the production system must have sex that it serves a number of inhering customers, and the quality of the output delivered to these customers is crucial to the end result, i.e. the quality of the output delivered to the external customer.Deming (2002) himself concedes that, in 1950, this was a formidable challenge for the Japanese top managers, but they judge the challenge, and the result is there for us all to see today. In Demings words A new economic age had begun.Today it is operose to understand that such(prenominal) a simple message presented the Japanese with such a difficult challenge. Our experience of top managers is that they accept the message without question. However, this does not diminish the encumbrance of the challenge, because it implies that firms traditional information systems are totally inadequate. A culture must be established to ensure that internal customer search functions just as well as external. Here, it is important to point out that internal analysis is based on entirely different principles from external analysis. confabulation and team-building are the key words here. Obviously, the participation of top management is requisite in building up this culture.It weed be seen that the snap on the customer and the employee is much more comprehensive than just the rivet on the customer, which is the norm in service management. The latter refers solely to external customers. The former, while including these, also stresses the internal customer/supplier relationship. This relationship is one of the most important innovations which TQM has introduced.Quality circumspection In Todays EraAs we have discussed above that how the management of quality is decisive to the output product of any ecesis it has made clear that without an excellen t quality management system an disposal brush aside not implement total quality management. In todays era new ways of quality management have been introduced that spate make quality management a much easier and trenchant job for the management system.Technology has been quiet cost increase in todays world and every organization is laborious to get its hand on the most advance engineering science that can take it to a much high level from its competitiors. A new emerging engine room for managing quality in well established organizations is the use of Web-Based Quality Management Systems.Why this technology is vital today is beacuse of organizations expanding their lineagees worldwide or operating at different geoghraphical locations. It is much easier to manage the quality in an organization that is operating at one location but if it has its operations going on at different locations it is much harder to implement and manage total quality management. unless these new sys tems have overcome this gap by providing a change hub to manage the quality. No matter how scattered the operations of the organizations are and how many mail service holders are involved, by implementing these systems organizations need not to worry about the outer space and communication gap.Competition and cost consciousness on the one nerve an change magnitude demand for quality and reliability on the other side are contrary requirements in present production engineering. This must be considered also from the point of view of the transnational standards about quality management and quality authorization. The origins of quality management and quality assurance in a modern sense began in manufacturing organizations at about the commencement exercise of the 20th century 1,and many of the wights for quality analysis and amelioration were developed for manufacturing problems. with the 1980s, this manufacturing emphasis dominate the profession. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s, business began to recognise the importance of quality service in achieving customer satisfaction and competing in the global tradeplace. In the late 1990s also the existence land and governmental departments became aware of the general importance of quality issues. In a very important sense, this recognition has expanded the definition andconcept of quality to include n primordial any organisational amelioration such as the decrement of manufacturing cycle time and reformd worker skills. And also the frequent arena is now starting to take care of quality management within its structures.In addition to industrial organisations and the manufacturing industry also service organisations build up quality systems. Ancillary services in manufacturing companies as well as stand-alone service organisations such as hospitals and banks are beginning to realise the benefits of a focus on quality.A number of different industries are successively doing business around the glob e and the quality systems that are availaible in the market does not mostly cater a unique(predicate) industry and all of them provide different features, tools and options, so it is a complex decision to choose the best availaible solution from a wide range of variety. In this dissertation different availaible web-based quality management systems are limited reviewed and their shortnesses are pointed out and a model is proposed in the end that covers all gaps in the currently availaible systems. Chapter 2 Literature ReviewIn this chapter literary productions review is carried out and analyzed that which tools and schemes are imperative for the management of quality and how they support in the quality management. This will enable to know how different branches of an organization can be indulged with quality by victimization what affiliate of tools and how these tools can benifit any organization. The approach to quality most extensively adopted by Western companies in recent ye ars has been the application of national and international (ISO 9000 or equivalent) quality management standards. This approach is following steadfastly along the quality assurance path. It is more proactive than reliance on undercover work/inspection and allows for the use of quality tools primarily to stop non-conforming products being produced or non-conforming services being delivered in the first place. Hence there is a switch implied from detection to prevention via quality systems, subprograms and a quality manual. 182.1 Quality Management Tools TechniquesNumerous definitions and methodologies have been created to assist in managing the quality-affecting aspects of business operations. Many different techniques and concepts have evolved to purify product or service quality. Tools and techniques like graphs, graphs, histograms and complex tools like statistical make direct, Quality use of goods and services Deployment, tribulation Mode and Effect abbreviation and Des ign of Experiments have been use for quality management for a number of years. All of these tools are very erective for quality evaluation and death penalty when utilise rightly and at specify situation. Juan Jose Tari and Vicente Sabater Quality management tools in their research on Quality tools and Techniques has outlined few important tools and techniques that can be luminously befriending in managing and increase organizations quality standards. The very basic tools, the management tools for quality and techniques for quality management are outlined in the table below base Quality Management ToolsManagement ToolsTechniquesCause Effect platchemical attraction platBenchmarkingCheck SheetArrow DiagramDesign of Experiments run chartMatrix DiagramFMEAGraphsMatrix Data abridgment breaking tree AnalysisHistoghramProcess DecisionPoka YokePareto Diagram program chartQuality CostingScatter DiagramRelations DiagramQFDstatistical Process Control disconcert 1 Quality Management To ols and Techniques individually indivisual tool has its own pickyity and benifits the organization in its own manner. The implementation and benifits of few of these tools are discussed in the next section.2.2 Quality Control, boldness and returnsThe scholars of quality assume that the reckoner is only the linking force and they put less emphasis on it, and frequently do not consider at all, the modern practices linked to quality management such as employee involvement or continuous quality proceeds. Indeed, they concentrate their attention on the computer integration/automation model. But for quality consider, quality assurance and quality cleansement insists on involving all these aspects. Good oneQuality supremacy is defined as operational with activities aimed both at supervise a surgery and eliminating causes of unsatisfactory motion for relevant stages of the quality grommet to achieve economic metier. Quality sway is a technique to achieve, uphold and improve t he quality standard of products and service. Defects or troubles in constructed facilities or products can result in very large costs. 500 the emphasis on quality arrest is clear to achieve complete quality management and for this quality control tools are vital to be apply. Quality improvement requires improvement of surgical processes in process based quality improvement approach. To improve the quality hence several inspection tools can be apply to recover the processes and find the ways to improve it to get better and better results. overly the basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many manageable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment use to process such materials, methods utilize for processing, the military force involved or any other specific source as identified by the organizati on. 800 has suggested following portentous tools for the quality management in respect of each quality ingredientQuality ControlQuality AssuranceQuality receiptsStatistical process controlRegressionProcess capability analysis,Rule-based reason out (Expert Systems)Factor analysisPareto analysisModel-basedreasoning and case-basedreasoningCause and effectplatProcess mapping, design ofexperiments bereavement Mode and Effect AnalysisQuality function deploymentDesign of ExperimentsDesign of experimentsAnalysis of varianceTable 1Above mentioned tools when utilise in combinations as best commensurate for the processes and endeavour could produce massive increase in overall performance of the organization. few of these tools and their significance in quality managemet is illustrated below2.3 Statistical Process ControlThe appearance of computers on the shop root word has enhanced the change magnitude word meaning of SPC. Computers have greatly reduced the efforts required by produc tion personnel to collect and analyze data.very good journal lavishly quality products and services, far from being random or probabilistic events, are in reality anticipated and managed outcomes that can contribute to organizational survival in the marketplace. This credit has encouraged organizations to embrace and implement numerous approaches, some romance and some re-discovered, aimed at achieving the objective of continuous quality improvement. One universal and general implementation in the name of quality management is that of statistical process control, or SPC. 19 Statistical Process Control or SPC can be used in a organization for the quality control purpose. It when applied to a process gives the stability of that process which can finally help in identifing the root causes and take corrective actions.The basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the t ime, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization.20SPC is an impelling tool for irresponsible quality of a manufacturing process kind of it can be applied to most of the processes in any organization and can aid in controlling the quality as per requirements. It identifies the sources that affects the quality of the process outputs and hence can be eradicated as identified. But there lies a problem with the use of it that is interpretation the results of SPC which can be only well understood by quality control specialists. This can create communication gaps and a lot of other misconceptions about its use. But still SPC is being used to control quality from a number of years and it has proved itself to be giving tremendously imperative results to the organizati ons.The popularity of SPC as a quality management practice has been fostered, in part, by a wealth of publications ascribing quality and cost benefits to it. The literature is dominated by anecdotal success stories, attributing high market share, lower failure costs, higher product quality, and higher productivity to the implementation and practice of SPC (Dondero, 1991). Reports of SPC failures, on the contrary, have been few and, again, case-oriented (Dale Shaw, 1991 Lightburn Dale, 1992).22 Evans and Lindsay (1989, pp. 313-3 14), define SPC to be a methodology using control charts for assisting operators, supervisors, and managers to monitor quality of conformance and to eliminate special causes of disagreement of a process a technique to control quality using chance and statistics to determine and maintain the state of statistical control.23 Hence the advantages and effectiveness can well be understood from the above discussion and its can be concluded that SPC can play a m ajor role in controling any process and eliminating any cause that disturbs the process as its main idea is to enable the quality of conformance to be monitored and special causes of process variability to be eliminated.2.4 mishap Mode and Effect AnalysisFailure Mode and Effect Analysis is tool that can be used to analyse the failures that can occur in the near future or after the implementation of the system and identify the set up that it would cause to the system. Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is known to be a opinionated procedure for the analysis of a system to identify the potential failure modes, their causes and effects on system performance. The analysis is successfully performed preferably early in the development cycle so that removal or temperance of the failure mode is most cost effective. This analysis can be initiated as soon as the system is defined FMEA timing is necessity. 24 1 below shows some random forms as an example of FMEA version 1, 2 3 char ts.For FMEA to be effective its is very important to use this tool in the early development phase as catching errors and kettle of fish them in earlier stages is more effectual and less costly. FMEA can be implemented to the highest level of block diagram to the functions of the of the discrete components. to a fault FMEA can be used again and again as the design is developed. The FMEA is an repetitious process that is updated as the design develops. Design changes will require that relevant split of the FMEA be reviewed and updated. 24 Hence FMEA could play an imperative role in going for the process changing for improvement. The change planned for the process for improving it can be verified by the application of this technique.2.5 Quality consort Deployment (QFD)QFD has been used along with the integration of other effective tools to achieve quality in processes and products, reducing cycle clock and improving performance. 600 found out that in the span of the first seven ye ars, between 1977 and 1984, the Toyota Auto body give employed QFD and claimed that with its useManufacturing startup and pre-production costs were reduced by 60%.The product development cycle (that is, time to market) was reduced by 33% with a corresponding improvement in quality because of the decline in the number of engineering changes.Quality function deployment QFD is based on the concept of companywide quality control. The company wide quality control philosophy is characterised by customer orientation, cross functional management and process rather than product orientation. Also the roots of Japanese companywide quality control are the same concepts of statistical quality control and total quality control as originated in the USA.2.6 Quality Improvement A Need or A NeccessityIn the technological advanced manufacturing industry today, organziations are stressful their level best to imorove their quality standards yet reducing their cycle times and time to reach the market. This pushes them to adopt the latest availaible technologies to manage and inject quality into their products and processes, so that the production time is not effected by increasing dread of quality management. Nowadays there is a tough aspiration in every . Aberdeen Group has done an extensive research on opening move Manufacturing Intelligence and it says that the best in class organzaitions are ensuring that continuois improvement programs yeild the expected results help to unlock hidden capabilities as well as allows for greater flexibility in altering schedule to meet shifty demands. It is essential that executives are provided visibleness across plants, product lines and demand when making decisions on delivery, discounts and staffing. Many companies can manufacture the same product in mutiple facilities and are continually evaluating the most cost effective loaction to manufacture based on a mutitude of factors. Finally, establishing key performance indicators mapped to corporate goals allows shop floor process across different plants to be standardized and alligned to the goals of senior management. 27 The focus is on ensuring continuous improvement programs and establishing key performance indicating targets that eventually supports corporate goals. Also what is part of best in class manufaturers strategic goals is to provide visibility across the plants, production lines and demands, This would help the exectives of the organzaition to understand monitor the performanc of current processes. In the survey carried out by aberdeen group following constituent was cypher of the best in class organizations of the top trey strategic actions taken by themThe above research indication shows the top three strategic actions of the Best-In-Class organizations and all of these actions are quality related. This very well proves that for the organizations that wants to be included in the best in class list or that wants to baulk in best in class list mus t improve their quality standards as per the market and industries requirements. Hence quality improvement could be termed as the necessity of todays era and to survive in todays market an organization needs to update it quality management systems. All the indicators from research above points towards the advancements in quality management and that lead us to the topic of quality management systems of today that is Web-based quality management.CHAPTER 3Quality Management SystemsFrom time to time quality gurus and scholars have only been management and trying to develope discriminate control charts for processes, but now due to the advancements in technology and sack towards real time quality managementWeb-base Quality Management SystemsWeb-base Quality Management SystemsChapter 1 Introduction1.1 Defining Quality, History and Achieving international Quality StandardsQuality is a perceptual, conditional and somewhat subjective attribute and may be understood differently by differe nt people in different spheres of life. It is a degree or grade of excellence or worth, a characteristic property that defines the apparent individual nature of something or totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.In recent years, many organisations have adopted quality management systems to improve the quality of both goods and services through the application of efficient quality management methods and principles (Feigenbaum, 2000). The reason why so many organisations have started on the journey is either because of customer pressure for ISO 9000 certification or because the firms themselves have pull in the strategic advantage of having this certificate, i.e. it would give them an edge over their competitors. Most of the firms which started out on the journey to ISO 9000 still may not have completed that journey. In general, it takes 2 years, and obtaining this coveted certificate is only a fir st step towards the ultimate goal total quality management (TQM).Reaching this goal may take at least 5 years. In the next sections of the dissertation we will take a closer look at the characteristics of the different quality management systems. In this section, we concentrate on the concept of quality itself. We start with the two types of quality, namelyObjective quality, which is simply the products total number of quality attributes.Subjective quality, which is a result of the consumers experience of the products objective attributes.Subjective quality is thus defined as the degree of fulfillment of consumers expectations (Feigenbaum, 2000). Beyond the customers desirable expectations, there are always the customers latent expectations. Manufacturers and the service providers must therefore find the hidden expectations in order to keep the customer satisfied. It is subjective quality which matters to the company, and it is this definition which Deming used in his renowned eight -day quality seminars for Japanese top managers in 1950. Demings message to them was simple but powerful The consumer is the most important part of the production line.The idea that customers should be seen as a part of the production line was in itself a revolutionary one at that time. A logical conclusion is that quality production is only possible if it is systematically and continuously based on customer desires and needs. It is simple in theory but difficult in practice because there are many obstacles to overcome along the way. Demings 14 points, which we have taken the liberty of calling stations along the way, are among the most important means of overcoming these obstacles.You may ask this important question Why have the Japanese been better at understanding Demings message than the Western world? There are many reasons for this, but one of the most intriguing reasons may be found in the Japanese language, and thus in Japanese culture. In the Japanese language, quality mana gement can be translated as quality is equal to the attributes of the things (i.e. what peoples talk about).This interpretation results in the following definition of quality management Control of the attributes of a product which consumers talk about. To understand why consumers talk about a products attributes, we will delve into motivation theory. Herzberg has divided motivation into two factorsFactors which create satisfaction (satisfiers).Factors which create dissatisfaction (dissatisfiers).Similarly, many objective attributes of a product or service can be categorised. We may talk about the basic attributes that the consumer expects when he/she buys the product. If these are not present in sufficient quantities, the consumer experiences dissatisfaction. If the expected attributes are present, naturally the consumer is satisfied, but the interesting and crucial thing is that the degree of satisfaction will not necessarily be particularly high. The experience will be more or les s neutral.Apart from the attributes which the customer expects to find, it is always possible to build attributes into the product or service which the customer does not expect to find, i.e. attributes which will delight or satisfy him/her. The more of these attributes that are present in the product or services, the greater the satisfaction, and this satisfaction will, in many cases, increase significantly. We call these attributes value-added quality. However, in Japan they use the term charming quality, whereas in the US they interpret this as exciting quality. We believe that value-added quality covers both.One example of expected quality in air travel is safety. Korean Air lost its repute as a quality airline in the wake of the tragic incident of a passenger airline being shot down over Soviet territory. Prior to this incident, Korean Air was rated as one of the top quality airlines in the world. Afterwards, Korean Airs quality ratings dropped significantly. In our view, the on ly thing which can adequately explain this is that Korean Air had failed to deliver the customers expected quality.As an example of value-added quality, let us consider the added service offered by ISS Laundry Service, a subsidiary of International Service Systems (ISS). This company which, among other activities, changes bed-linen in hotel rooms, suddenly had an idea. As they were there to change the sheets, they might as well see if anything else needed doing, e.g. small repairs, changing light-bulbs, etc., and report this to the hotel management. This unexpected service, which hardly costs ISS anything, created an enormous amount of goodwill for the company among its customers.The understanding behind Demings assertion, that the consumer is the most important aspect of the production line, lies precisely in the subjective definition of quality, which we will be discussing in this dissertation.The introduction of quality management theory towards the end of the 1980s led to the de velopment of a new concept called total quality. This concept was defined as follows (Kanji, 2002)Qualityis to satisfy customers requirements continuously.Total qualityis to achieve quality at low cost.Total quality managementis to obtain total quality by involving everyones daily commitment.These definitions will become clearer as we proceed through the dissertation. The objective of TQM is to improve continuously each and every activity in the company focusing on the customer. Every product has some deficiency, i.e. risks for making customers dissatisfied. These deficiencies must be continually eliminated and, at the same time, the firm must ensure that its product or service always incorporate the quality attributes which satisfy its customers.1.2 Total quality managementThe concept of TQM is a logical development of total quality control (TQC), a concept first introduced by A. V. Feigenbaum in 2000 in a book of the same name. Though Feigenbaum had other things in mind with TQC, it only really caught on in engineering circles, and thus never achieved the total acceptance in British companies that was intended. TQC was a hit in Japan, on the other hand, where the first quality circles were set up in 1962, which later developed into what the Japanese themselves call company-wide quality control (CWQC). this is identical to what people in the West today call TQM.One of the main reasons for the failure of TQC in British companies was a management misconception that responsibility for implementing TQC could be delegated to a central quality department. In doing so, management overlooked one of the most important points in TQC, namely managements wholehearted commitment to quality improvements. The aim of the new concept, TQM, is to ensure that history does not repeat itself. Thus, management have been directly included in the definition of the concept, making it impossible for them to avoid their responsibility. To include the word management here sends an unmis takable signal straight into executive offices that this is a job for top management, including the board of directors. TQM will be further discussed in following chapters.Chapter 2 Quality Perspectives The inadequacy of traditional management in UK JapanTraditional British forms of management are based on a philosophy which divides responsibility for decisions into strategic, tactical and operational levels, i.e. the so-called management pyramid. We now know that this management conception is totally inadequate for modern, complex companies, since it does not give the connection between top management and the main processes at the bottom responsible for customer satisfaction. As a result, the management is ignorant of the real problems on the operational level, and do not provide the support and backing that the operation level needs for the creation of customer satisfaction (Feigenbaum, 2000).The decisions which cascade down from top management are often exclusively budgetary in nature, containing instructions which are forced on lower levels without due consideration of their problems. Many local branches of a bank have similar experiences. A typical example of this was noted after some Danish bank mergers took place at the, end of the 1980s. Branch managers of these banks received orders by internal post to cut staff numbers by a certain figure with no indication of how this could be achieved without drastically reducing the quality of products and services offered to their customers. Hiromoto (2002) describes this as management by terrorism.In discussing British and Japanese management philosophy, Konosuke Matsushita, founder of one of the worlds biggest companies, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic, National, Technics, etc.), said We are going to win and the industrial West is going to lose out theres nothing much you can do about it, because the reasons for your failure are within yourselves. Your firms are built on the Taylor model even worse, so are your heads. With your bosses doing the thinking while the workers wield the screwdrivers, youre convinced deep down that this is the right way to run a business. For you, the essence of management is getting the ideas out of the heads of the bosses into the hands of labour. (p).Hoinville (2002) feels that the emphasis of managements commitment has its origin in the system, the reason for quality defects. It has been estimated that 85% of all defects are caused by system errors, i.e. errors which only management has the authority to change.Management must show by its actions that it has understood the message. It must constantly strive to reduce system errors by setting up quality goals, drawing up quality policies and quality plans, and participating actively in the follow-up auditing phase. Finally, management must concede its own lack of knowledge in the quality field and take the lead in acquiring new knowledge. If management does all this, it will have created a firm foundation on w hich future quality can be built. Conversely, there would be little point in building quality on a shaky foundation.We have already pointed out that the customer is the most important part of the production line. Deming (2002) introduced this idea to top Japanese managers in 1950 by means of a basic outline of an arbitrary production system, or part of a production system. This outline, which must today be considered traditional, shows that both customer and supplier are part of the production system, and that information for improving this comes from two sources consumer research and process tests. Since this outline also applies to an arbitrary sub-system, it shows that customer and supplier concepts embrace much more than just external customers and suppliers. Internal customers and suppliers, i.e. employees, are at least as important as the external ones. Any person, or process, which forms part of the production system must recognise that it serves a number of internal customer s, and the quality of the output delivered to these customers is crucial to the end result, i.e. the quality of the output delivered to the external customer.Deming (2002) himself concedes that, in 1950, this was a formidable challenge for the Japanese top managers, but they accepted the challenge, and the result is there for us all to see today. In Demings words A new economic age had begun.Today it is difficult to understand that such a simple message presented the Japanese with such a difficult challenge. Our experience of top managers is that they accept the message without question. However, this does not lessen the difficulty of the challenge, because it implies that firms traditional information systems are totally inadequate. A culture must be established to ensure that internal customer research functions just as well as external. Here, it is important to point out that internal analysis is based on entirely different principles from external analysis. Communication and tea m-building are the key words here. Obviously, the participation of top management is necessary in building up this culture.It can be seen that the Focus on the customer and the employee is much more comprehensive than just the focus on the customer, which is the norm in service management. The latter refers solely to external customers. The former, while including these, also stresses the internal customer/supplier relationship. This relationship is one of the most important innovations which TQM has introduced.Quality Management In Todays EraAs we have discussed above that how the management of quality is vital to the output product of any organization it has made clear that without an excellent quality management system an organization can not implement total quality management. In todays era new ways of quality management have been introduced that can make quality management a much easier and effective job for the management body.Technology has been quiet advance in todays world and every organization is trying to get its hand on the most advance technology that can take it to a much higher level from its competitiors. A new emerging technology for managing quality in well established organizations is the use of Web-Based Quality Management Systems.Why this technology is vital today is beacuse of organizations expanding their businesses worldwide or operating at different geoghraphical locations. It is much easier to manage the quality in an organization that is operating at one location but if it has its operations going on at different locations it is much harder to implement and manage total quality management. But these new systems have overcome this gap by providing a centralized hub to manage the quality. No matter how scattered the operations of the organizations are and how many stake holders are involved, by implementing these systems organizations need not to worry about the distance and communication gap.Competition and cost consciousness on the one side an increasing demand for quality and reliability on the other side are contrary requirements in present production engineering. This must be considered also from the point of view of the international standards about quality management and quality assurance. The origins of quality management and quality assurance in a modern sense began in manufacturing organizations at about the beginning of the twentieth century 1,and many of the tools for quality analysis and improvement were developed for manufacturing problems. Through the 1980s, this manufacturing emphasis dominated the profession. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s, business began to recognise the importance of quality service in achieving customer satisfaction and competing in the global marketplace. In the late 1990s also the public domain and governmental departments became aware of the general importance of quality issues. In a very important sense, this recognition has expanded the definition andconcept of qua lity to include nearly any organisational improvement such as the reduction of manufacturing cycle time and improved worker skills. And also the public sector is now starting to take care of quality management within its structures.In addition to industrial organisations and the manufacturing industry also service organisations build up quality systems. Ancillary services in manufacturing companies as well as stand-alone service organisations such as hospitals and banks are beginning to realise the benefits of a focus on quality.A number of different industries are successively doing business around the globe and the quality systems that are availaible in the market does not mostly cater a specific industry and all of them provide different features, tools and options, so it is a complex decision to choose the best availaible solution from a wide range of variety. In this dissertation different availaible web-based quality management systems are reviewed and their shortnesses are po inted out and a model is proposed in the end that covers all gaps in the currently availaible systems. Chapter 2 Literature ReviewIn this chapter literature review is carried out and analyzed that which tools and schemes are imperative for the management of quality and how they cooperate in the quality management. This will enable to know how different branches of an organization can be indulged with quality by using what sort of tools and how these tools can benifit any organization. The approach to quality most extensively adopted by Western companies in recent years has been the application of national and international (ISO 9000 or equivalent) quality management standards. This approach is following firmly along the quality assurance path. It is more proactive than reliance on detection/inspection and allows for the use of quality tools primarily to stop non-conforming products being produced or non-conforming services being delivered in the first place. Hence there is a switch implied from detection to prevention via quality systems, procedures and a quality manual. 182.1 Quality Management Tools TechniquesNumerous definitions and methodologies have been created to assist in managing the quality-affecting aspects of business operations. Many different techniques and concepts have evolved to improve product or service quality. Tools and techniques like charts, graphs, histograms and complex tools like Statistical Process Control, Quality Function Deployment, Failure Mode and Effect Analysis and Design of Experiments have been used for quality management for a number of years. All of these tools are very effective for quality evaluation and implementation when applied rightly and at correct situation. Juan Jose Tari and Vicente Sabater Quality management tools in their research on Quality tools and Techniques has outlined few important tools and techniques that can be luminously helping in managing and increasing organizations quality standards. The very b asic tools, the management tools for quality and techniques for quality management are outlined in the table belowBasic Quality Management ToolsManagement ToolsTechniquesCause Effect DiagramAffinity DiagramBenchmarkingCheck SheetArrow DiagramDesign of ExperimentsControl chartMatrix DiagramFMEAGraphsMatrix Data AnalysisFault Tree AnalysisHistoghramProcess DecisionPoka YokePareto DiagramProgram ChartQuality CostingScatter DiagramRelations DiagramQFDStatistical Process ControlTable 1 Quality Management Tools and TechniquesEach indivisual tool has its own speciality and benifits the organization in its own manner. The implementation and benifits of few of these tools are discussed in the next section.2.2 Quality Control, Assurance and ImprovementThe scholars of quality assume that the computer is only the linking force and they put less emphasis on it, and frequently do not consider at all, the modern practices linked to quality management such as employee involvement or continuous qua lity improvement. Indeed, they concentrate their attention on the computer integration/automation model. But for quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement insists on involving all these aspects. Good oneQuality control is defined as operational with activities aimed both at monitoring a process and eliminating causes of unsatisfactory performance for relevant stages of the quality loop to achieve economic effectiveness. Quality control is a technique to achieve, maintain and improve the quality standard of products and service. Defects or failures in constructed facilities or products can result in very large costs. 500 the emphasis on quality control is clear to achieve complete quality management and for this quality control tools are vital to be implemented. Quality improvement requires improvement of processes in process based quality improvement approach. To improve the quality hence several inspection tools can be applied to access the processes and find the w ays to improve it to get better and better results. Also the basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization. 800 has suggested following significant tools for the quality management in respect of each quality componentQuality ControlQuality AssuranceQuality ImprovementStatistical process controlRegressionProcess capability analysis,Rule-based reasoning (Expert Systems)Factor analysisPareto analysisModel-basedreasoning and case-basedreasoningCause and effectdiagramProcess mapping, design ofexperimentsFailure Mode and Effect AnalysisQuality function deploymentDesign of ExperimentsDesign of experimentsAnalysis of varianceTable 1Above mentioned tools when used in combinations as best suitable for the processes and enterprise could produce massive increase in overall performance of the organization. Few of these tools and their significance in quality managemet is illustrated below2.3 Statistical Process ControlThe appearance of computers on the shop floor has enhanced the increased adoption of SPC. Computers have greatly reduced the efforts required by production personnel to collect and analyze data.very good journal High quality products and services, far from being random or probabilistic events, are actually anticipated and managed outcomes that can contribute to organizational survival in the marketplace. This realization has encouraged organizations to embrace and implement numerous approaches, some novel and some re-discovered, aimed at achieving the objective of continuous quality improvement. One popular and widespread implementation in the name of quality management is that of s tatistical process control, or SPC. 19 Statistical Process Control or SPC can be used in a organization for the quality control purpose. It when applied to a process gives the stability of that process which can eventually help in identifing the root causes and take corrective actions.The basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization.20SPC is an effective tool for controlling quality of a manufacturing process rather it can be applied to most of the processes in any organization and can aid in controlling the quality as per requirements. It identifies the sources that affects the quality of the process out puts and hence can be eradicated as identified. But there lies a problem with the use of it that is interpreting the results of SPC which can be only well understood by quality control specialists. This can create communication gaps and a lot of other misconceptions about its use. But still SPC is being used to control quality from a number of years and it has proved itself to be giving enormously positive results to the organizations.The popularity of SPC as a quality management practice has been fostered, in part, by a wealth of publications ascribing quality and cost benefits to it. The literature is dominated by anecdotal success stories, attributing higher market share, lower failure costs, higher product quality, and higher productivity to the implementation and practice of SPC (Dondero, 1991). Reports of SPC failures, on the contrary, have been few and, again, case-oriented (Dale Shaw, 1991 Lightburn Dale, 1992).22 Evans and Lindsay (1989, pp. 313-3 14), define SPC to be a methodology using control charts for assisting operators, supervisors, and managers to monitor quality of conformance and to eliminate special causes of variability of a process a technique to control quality using probability and statistics to determine and maintain the state of statistical control.23 Hence the advantages and effectiveness can well be understood from the above discussion and its can be concluded that SPC can play a major role in controling any process and eliminating any cause that disturbs the process as its main idea is to enable the quality of conformance to be monitored and special causes of process variability to be eliminated.2.4 Failure Mode and Effect AnalysisFailure Mode and Effect Analysis is tool that can be used to analyse the failures that can occur in the near future or after the implementation of the system and identify the effects that it would cause to the system. Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is known to be a systematic procedure for th e analysis of a system to identify the potential failure modes, their causes and effects on system performance. The analysis is successfully performed preferably early in the development cycle so that removal or mitigation of the failure mode is most cost effective. This analysis can be initiated as soon as the system is defined FMEA timing is essential. 24 1 below shows some random forms as an example of FMEA version 1, 2 3 charts.For FMEA to be effective its is very important to use this tool in the early development phase as catching errors and fixing them in earlier stages is more effectual and less costly. FMEA can be implemented to the highest level of block diagram to the functions of the of the discrete components. Also FMEA can be used again and again as the design is developed. The FMEA is an iterative process that is updated as the design develops. Design changes will require that relevant parts of the FMEA be reviewed and updated. 24 Hence FMEA could play an imperative role in going for the process changing for improvement. The change planned for the process for improving it can be verified by the application of this technique.2.5 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)QFD has been used along with the integration of other effective tools to achieve quality in processes and products, reducing cycle times and improving performance. 600 found out that in the span of the first seven years, between 1977 and 1984, the Toyota Auto body plant employed QFD and claimed that with its useManufacturing startup and pre-production costs were reduced by 60%.The product development cycle (that is, time to market) was reduced by 33% with a corresponding improvement in quality because of the reduction in the number of engineering changes.Quality function deployment QFD is based on the concept of companywide quality control. The company wide quality control philosophy is characterised by customer orientation, cross functional management and process rather than product orie ntation. Also the roots of Japanese companywide quality control are the same concepts of statistical quality control and total quality control as originated in the USA.2.6 Quality Improvement A Need or A NeccessityIn the technological advanced manufacturing industry today, organziations are trying their level best to imorove their quality standards yet reducing their cycle times and time to reach the market. This pushes them to adopt the latest availaible technologies to manage and inject quality into their products and processes, so that the production time is not effected by increasing concern of quality management. Nowadays there is a tough competition in every . Aberdeen Group has done an extensive research on Enterprise Manufacturing Intelligence and it says that the best in class organzaitions are ensuring that continuois improvement programs yeild the expected results help to unlock hidden capabilities as well as allows for greater flexibility in altering schedule to meet shi fting demands. It is essential that executives are provided visibility across plants, product lines and demand when making decisions on delivery, discounts and staffing. Many companies can manufacture the same product in mutiple facilities and are continually evaluating the most cost effective loaction to manufacture based on a mutitude of factors. Finally, establishing key performance indicators mapped to corporate goals allows shop floor process across different plants to be standardized and alligned to the goals of senior management. 27 The focus is on ensuring continuous improvement programs and establishing key performance indicating targets that eventually supports corporate goals. Also what is part of best in class manufaturers strategic goals is to provide visibility across the plants, production lines and demands, This would help the exectives of the organzaition to understand monitor the performanc of ongoing processes. In the survey carried out by aberdeen group following percentage was calculated of the best in class organizations of the top three strategic actions taken by themThe above research indication shows the top three strategic actions of the Best-In-Class organizations and all of these actions are quality related. This very well proves that for the organizations that wants to be included in the best in class list or that wants to stay in best in class list must improve their quality standards as per the market and industries requirements. Hence quality improvement could be termed as the necessity of todays era and to survive in todays market an organization needs to update it quality management systems. All the indicators from research above points towards the advancements in quality management and that lead us to the topic of quality management systems of today that is Web-based quality management.CHAPTER 3Quality Management SystemsFrom time to time quality gurus and scholars have only been focusing and trying to develope appropriate con trol charts for processes, but now due to the advancements in technology and shifting towards real time quality management